Mother tongue education and indigenous inclusion: Barriers, policy gaps and learning outcomes

This review examines the critical role of mother tongue education in advancing inclusive education for Indigenous peoples worldwide. Despite international legal frameworks mandating Indigenous language instruction, significant barriers persist, including cultural stigmatisation, inadequate teacher training, and resource scarcity. Drawing on international scholarship and policy analysis, this review synthesises evidence on mother tongue education in Indigenous contexts, situating these within relevant legal and policy frameworks, and analyses systemic obstacles that impede implementation alongside their effects on learning outcomes. The analysis reveals that while progress has been made in Indigenous education, substantial gaps remain in funding, pedagogical capacity, and culturally responsive curriculum development. Based on a thematic synthesis of international literature, the findings underscore that effective mother tongue education requires not only policy commitment but also sustained community collaboration, leadership transformation, and resource investment. This review offers practical implications for educators, policymakers, and community leaders seeking to strengthen Indigenous language education as a pathway to educational equity and cultural preservation.