Recent advances in nanocarrier-based vaccines for enhanced immunotherapy

Nanocarrier vaccines represent a groundbreaking advancement in cancer immunotherapy, leveraging nanotechnology to enhance vaccine efficacy and specificity. This review examines the latest advancements in nanocarrier-based cancer vaccine formulations, focusing on the types of nanocarriers utilized and the critical role of their physicochemical properties in influencing immune responses. Key nanocarriers include liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, lipid nanoparticles, self-assembled protein nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, and virus-like particles. These nanocarriers improve antigen stability, protect against degradation, enable controlled release, and enhance uptake by antigen- presenting cells, resulting in stronger and more durable immune responses. The physicochemical characteristics of nanocarriers, including dimensions, form, surface charge, hydrophobicity, and degradability significantly influence vaccine efficacy by affecting cellular uptake, lymphatic trafficking, antigen presentation, and immune activation. Recent advancements optimize nanocarrier formulations to enhance antigen retention, immune interactions, and tumour modulation. Integrating immune-stimulatory agents like toll-like receptor agonists and cytokines, boosts immunogenicity, overcoming immune tolerance and improving outcomes. The emergence of new patents in nanocarrier- based cancer vaccines highlights innovative approaches in antigen stabilization, adjuvant selection, and targeted delivery. These patented technologies are driving the next generation of cancer immunotherapies, offering promising strategies for achieving precise, effective, and personalized cancer treatment. By synthesizing the latest findings, this review acts as a crucial reference for researchers and clinicians committed to progressing cancer nano vaccine innovation and understanding the emergence of new patents.