Animal Models of Temporomandibular Disorders: A Systematic Review of Pathophysiological Mechanisms and Translational Relevance

Temporomandibular disorders (TMD) represent a group of multifactorial musculoskeletal conditions that cause pain and dysfunction in the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), masticatory muscles, and associated structures. Various animal models have been developed to elucidate the biological mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets of TMD. This systematic review summarizes the main types of animal models used in TMD research, including inflammatory, mechanical, surgical, and psychological stress models. Each model demonstrates unique advantages in replicating specific pathological features such as inflammation, cartilage degeneration, or chronic pain. However, none can fully reproduce the complexity of human TMD, which involves biomechanical, inflammatory, and psychosocial interactions. The combination of inflammatory and mechanical loading models appears most relevant to clinical conditions, while psychological stress models provide insight into the neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying chronic pain. Future research should focus on developing multifactorial animal models and employing advanced imaging and molecular tools to enhance translational validity.